http://repub.eur.nl/res/aut/1496/ List of Publications en http://repub.eur.nl/static-eur/img/logo.png http://repub.eur.nl http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/26305/ 2011-06-01T00:00:00Z Unethical behavior in the workplace is a widespread phenomenon. In this article a model for the ethical culture of organizations that consists of eight dimensions is employed to explain unethical behavior. The sample was composed of 341 triads consisting of a manager and two direct reports. The results show that six dimensions of ethical culture were negatively related to observed unethical behavior: ethical role modeling of management, ethical role modeling of supervisors, capability to behave ethically, commitment to behave ethically, openness to discuss ethical issues, and reinforcement of ethical behavior. Two of the eight dimensions, clarity of ethical standards and visibility of (un)ethical behavior, were not significantly related to unethical behavior. This study demonstrates that multiple dimensions of ethical culture have to be taken into account to reduce unethical behavior. The study opens up avenues for future research about the significance of each dimension in specific settings, the dynamic relationship between these dimensions, and the instruments required to improve each dimension of ethical culture. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/20923/ 2010-09-01T00:00:00Z http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/20287/ 2010-04-01T00:00:00Z The ethics of organizations has received much attention in recent years. This raises the question of whether the ethics of organizations has also improved. In 1999, 2004, and 2008, a survey was conducted of 12,196 U.S. managers and employees. The results show that the ethical culture of organizations improved in the period between 1999 and 2004. Between 2004 and 2008 unethical behavior and its consequences declined and the scope of ethics programs expanded while ethical culture showed no significant improvement during the same period. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for future research and practice. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/16600/ 2009-08-19T00:00:00Z Putting measures in place to prevent wrongdoing in organizations is important, but detecting and correcting wrongdoing is just as vital. Employees who observe wrongdoing should therefore be encouraged to respond in a manner that supports corrective action. This paper examines the influence of the ethical culture of organizations on employee responses to observed wrongdoing. The findings show that, contrary to transparency and congruency of management, many other dimensions of ethical culture were negatively related to inaction and external whistleblowing and positively related to direct interven-tion, reporting to management and calling an ethics hotline. The model used for ethical culture explained 27.5% of intended responses by employees. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/15909/ 2009-05-01T00:00:00Z A business code of ethics is widely regarded as an important instrument to curb unethical behavior in the workplace. However, little is empirically known about the factors that determine the impact of a code on unethical behavior. Besides the existence of a code, this study proposes five determining factors: the content of the code, the frequency of communication activities surrounding the code, the quality of the communication activities, and the embedment of the code in the organization by senior as well as local management. The full model explains 30.4% of unethical behavior while the explanatory value of a code alone is very modest. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/15405/ 2009-04-01T00:00:00Z The ethics of organizations has received much attention in recent years. This raises the question whether the ethics of organizations has also improved. In 1999, 2004 and 2008, a survey was conducted of 12,196 U.S. managers and employees. The results show that the ethical culture of organizations only improved in the period between 1999 and 2004. Unethical behavior and its consequences, however, declined between 2004 and 2008, while the scope of ethics programs expanded in that period. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for further research and practice. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14336/ 2008-12-01T00:00:00Z To date, theory and research on corruption in organizations have primarily focused on its static antecedents. This article focuses on the spread and growth of corruption in organizations. For this purpose, three downward organizational spirals are formulated: the spiral of divergent norms, the spiral of pressure, and the spiral of opportunity. Social Identity Theory is used to explain the mechanisms of each of these spirals. Our dynamic perspective contributes to a greater understanding of the development of corruption in organizations and opens up promising avenues for future research. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14451/ 2008-10-01T00:00:00Z Based on four interlocking empirical studies, this paper initially validates and refines the Corporate Ethical Virtues Model which formulates normative criteria for the ethical culture of organizations. The findings of an exploratory factor analysis provide support for the existence of eight unidimensional subscales: clarity, congruency of supervisors, congruency of management, feasibility, supportability, transparency, discussability, and sanctionability. The findings of a confirmatory factor analysis show that the overall fit of the model is quite high. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity is also found. The resulting 58-item self-reporting questionnaire is a useful tool that can be used in future research and by managers in assessing the ethical culture of their organization. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14845/ 2008-09-22T00:00:00Z To date, only one empirically tested measure of the observed frequency of unethical behavior in the workplace exists. This widely used measure focuses on intraorganizational cheating and thus covers only a limited part of the much broader spectrum of unethical behaviors in the workplace. Given the importance of a valid measure, this article uses stakeholder theory as a conceptual basis to develop a broader and multidimensional measure of unethical behavior in eight consecutive steps. Exploratory factor analysis generates five subscales comprising 37 items of unethical behavior primarily related to financiers, customers, employees, suppliers, and society. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrates that a five-factor model has a superior fit to a one-factor model. The subscales display good internal reliability. Preliminary evidence of nomological and criterion-related validity is also provided. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/12783/ 2008-07-11T00:00:00Z The Corporate Ethical Virtues Model, which is a model for measuring the ethical culture of organizations, has not been tested on its predictive validity. This study tests the relationship between this model and observed unethical behavior in work groups. The sample consists of 301 triads comprising a manager and two direct reports. The results show that six of the eight virtues are negatively related to observed unethical behavior. An important implication of this finding is that multiple corporate virtues are required to reduce unethical behavior in work groups. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/12192/ 2008-04-17T00:00:00Z The objective of an ethics program is to improve the ethical culture of an organization. To date, empirical research treats at least one of these concepts as a one-dimensional construct. This paper demonstrates that by conceptualizing both constructs as multi-dimensional, a better understanding of the relationship between the two concepts can be achieved. Employing the corporate ethical virtues model, eight dimensions of ethical culture are distinguished. Nine components of an ethics program are specified. To assess the relationship between ethical programs and ethical cultures, a survey of 4,056 members of the U.S. working population was conducted. The results show that the relationship between the individual components of an ethics program and ethical culture differs. Implications for research and practice are discussed. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11514/ 2008-01-01T00:00:00Z In the face of systemic challenges to corporate legitimacy, scholars and managers alike have been rethinking traditional answers to the question: What does it take to be a good company? We approach this question in two novel ways. We offer a normative answer, grounded in virtue ethics, by introducing a threefold typology of organizational forms. The moral goodness of each form depends on the congruence between its purpose and virtues. But we also offer a positive answer in the form of a processual model which traces corporate goodness to its empirical antecedents and consequences. The model defies a view of organizations as innately good or evil, but rather portrays virtue as the sediment of a value infusion process. We predict that if managers succeed in establishing in their organizations the kind of virtues necessary to support collective moral agency, they can expect to reap gains like enhanced effectiveness and legitimacy. However, when they neglect their moral responsibilities, the result will likely be organizational demise... http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/13597/ 2008-01-01T00:00:00Z Business codes are a widely used management instrument. Research into the effectiveness of business codes has, however, produced conflicting results. The main reasons for the divergent findings are: varying definitions of key terms; deficiencies in the empirical data and methodologies used; and a lack of theory. In this paper, we propose an integrated research model and suggest directions for future research. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10770/ 2007-12-07T00:00:00Z Based on four interlocking empirical studies, this paper initially validates and refines the Corporate Ethical Virtues Model which formulates normative criteria for the ethical culture of organizations. The findings of an exploratory factor analysis provide support for the existence of eight unidimensional subscales: clarity, congruency of supervisors, congruency of management, feasibility, supportability, transparency, discussability, and sanctionability. The findings of a confirmatory factor analysis show that the overall fit of the model is quite high. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity is also found. The resulting 58-item self-reporting questionnaire is a useful tool that can be used in future research and by managers in assessing the ethical culture of their organization. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10772/ 2007-12-07T00:00:00Z To date, theory and research on corruption in organizations have primarily focused on its static antecedents. This paper focuses on the spread and growth of corruption in organizations. For this purpose three downward organizational spirals are formulated: the spiral of divergent norms, the spiral of pressure, and the spiral of opportunity. Social Identity Theory is used to explain the mechanisms of each of these spirals. Our dynamic perspective contributes to a greater understanding of the development of corruption in organizations and opens up promising avenues for future research. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10150/ 2007-05-24T00:00:00Z Business codes are a widely used management instrument. Research into the effectiveness of business codes has, however, produced conflicting results. The main reasons for the divergent findings are: varying definitions of key terms; deficiencies in the empirical data and methodologies used; and a lack of theory. In this paper, we propose an integrated research model and suggest directions for future research. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/9728/ 2007-04-04T00:00:00Z In the face of systemic challenges to corporate legitimacy, scholars and managers alike have been rethinking traditional answers to the question: What does it take to be a good company? We approach this question in two novel ways. We offer a normative answer, grounded in virtue ethics, by introducing a threefold typology of organizational forms. The moral goodness of each form depends on the congruence between its purpose and virtues. But we also offer a positive answer in the form of a processual model which traces corporate goodness to its empirical antecedents and consequences. The model defies a view of organizations as innately good or evil, but rather portrays virtue as the sediment of a value infusion process. We predict that if managers succeed in establishing in their organizations the kind of virtues necessary to support collective moral agency, they can expect to reap gains like enhanced effectiveness and legitimacy. However, when they neglect their moral responsibilities, the result will likely be organizational demise. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11516/ 2007-01-01T00:00:00Z Professor Boatright raises three interesting objections in response to the internal morality of contracting the authors uncover in a previous issue. In response to the criticism of contractualist business ethics that it provides insufficient moral substance, it is argued that the notion of contracting is not a normatively neutral idea because of the normative commitments implied in everyday contracting practices. Thus, contrary to what Boatright claims the authors were not doing, their aim was indeed to show contracting is inherently normative because it contains an internal morality. To substantiate this claim, the authors began by arguing that contracting necessarily involves normative expectations of mutual benefit and effectiveness. These expectations are not only justified - that is, they are reasonably entertained by contractors engaged in contracting practices - but also necessary, because when they are generally lacking people out not understand what is going on as contracting. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11518/ 2006-10-01T00:00:00Z Contractualism is one of the most promising ‘centers of gravity’ in business ethics. In this guest editorial we provide a concise roadmap to the field, sketching contractualism’s historic and disciplinary antecedents, the basic argumentative structure of the contract model, and its boundary conditions. We also sketch two main dimensions along which contributions to the contractualist tradition can be positioned. The first dimension entails positive versus normative theorizing – does a given contribution analyze the world as it is or how it ought to be? The second dimension involves four different levels of analysis that are commonly employed in contractualist business ethics: the nano, micro, meso, and macro levels. We then proceed to position the articles comprising this special issue along these two dimensions. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11531/ 2006-03-01T00:00:00Z Some centers of gravity are finally emerging in the field of business ethics after a decades-long search for action-guiding theories. Among the foremost of these are contractualism and virtue ethics. The former focuses on the morals of economic exchange, the latter on the moral qualities of economic actors. We demonstrate that these dyadic and nodal ethics are not competing contenders to the throne of business ethics, but complementary approaches that are best used in tandem if we want to identify the generic normative core of the field. Specifically, virtue ethicists benefit from contractualists’ aptitude for highlighting the conditions that exchange relationships must meet in order to become vehicles for the pursuit of excellence. In turn, contractualists profit from virtue ethicists’ ability to identify the qualities actors must possess to efficaciously engage in exchange transactions. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11529/ 2006-01-01T00:00:00Z Integrative social contracts theory is arguably the most promising theory of business ethics to date, but often criticized for its inability to produce substantive, action-guiding norms. Rather that imparting moral substance from outside the contractualist framework, or abandoning contractualist business ethics (CBE) altogether, we seek to advance CBE by exploring the internal morality of contracting. We demonstrate that substantive norms for guiding and constraining business conduct can be produced without relying on premises from outside the contractualist framework. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/11596/ 2004-01-01T00:00:00Z Contractualism conceives of firm-stakeholder relations as cooperative schemes for mutual benefit. In essence, contractualism holds that these schemes, as well as the normative principles that guide and constrain them, are ultimately ratified by the consent and endorsement of those subject to them. This paper explores the empirical validity of a contractualist perspective on firm-stakeholder relations. It first develops a typology of firm-stakeholder contracting problems. It subsequently confronts this typology with empirical data collected in an interview study of concrete stakeholder management practices, involving in-depth research interviews with forty-four managers working in the Dutch financial services industry. The findings of this theory-building study suggest that there are limits to the applicability of the contract model in the context of stakeholder management, and that disregarding either the model or its limitations may lead to highly ineffective firm-stakeholder relations. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/305/ 2003-03-31T00:00:00Z De Open Onderneming: Een bedrijfsethisch vraagstuk In deze rede wordt de oproep vanuit de samenleving tot een grotere maatschappelijke openheid van bedrijven geplaatst in een bedrijfsethisch perspectief. Enerzijds zijn er bedrijfsethische redenen voor openheid. Anderzijds zijn er ook morele begrenzingen. Aan de hand van het maatschappelijk jaarverslag van ondernemingen wordt de noodzakelijke bijdrage van de bedrijfsethiek ge??llustreerd. Zeven morele vuistregels worden gepresenteerd voor het door bedrijven selecteren van de onderwerpen en indicatoren voor hun maatschappelijk jaarverslag. Op basis van deze vuistregels wordt een visie besproken op de opzet en invoering van het maatschappelijk jaarverslag en worden enkele aanbevelingen gedaan voor een verbetering van de kwaliteit van maatschappelijk jaarverslagen. De rede besluit met een appel van en voor de bedrijfsethiek. De Open Onderneming: Een maatschappelijk vraagstuk Ondernemingen nemen beslissingen die verreikende maatschappelijke gevolgen kunnen hebben. Tot voor kort ontleenden ze de legitimiteit van deze beslissingen aan de autoriteit van de overheid. De terugtredende overheid heeft er toe geleid dat bedrijven door de samenleving rechtstreeks aangesproken worden voor de maatschappelijke impact die ze hebben. Maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen is het antwoord van bedrijven op die vraag om verantwoording. Openheid staat hierin centraal. Openheid wordt veelal opgevat als 'transparantie'. Openheid houdt echter meer in. Het gaat ook om open staan voor maatschappelijke ontwikkelingen en maatschappelijke noden. Open staan voor maatschappelijke noden, ofwel maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen, is in de kern een ethisch vraagstuk. De gangbare ethiek schiet echter tekort om de problemen die ondernemingen ervaren bij het invullen van de maatschappelijke ruimte te conceptualiseren. De pluraliteit van waarden is een gegeven waar ondernemingen rekening mee moeten houden bij het invullen van hun maatschappelijke rol. De gangbare ethiek neigt er toe deze pluraliteit van waarden te reduceren tot ????n doorslaggevende waarde. Deze wijze van kijken naar maatschappelijke vraagstukken leidt tot een technocratische aanpak van het probleem. Maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen vergt een dialoog met en tussen de stakeholders. Dit is een proces van vele jaren en zal stapje voor stapje resultaten opleveren waarbij veel partijen samen de maatschappelijke keuzes maken.