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health effect value estimate study health gains patient respondent family valuation family effect caregiver result scenario evaluation qaly estimates equity healthcare chapter state income threshold qaly gains economic table health states validity caregiving caregiving effect wtp estimates decision other scale health effects group perspective journal preference health gain model level brouwer question well-being relationship willingness life expectancy weight people sample health state analysis probability questionnaire van exel nja intervention block concern context dutch method difference expectancy sensitivity illness future characteristic status equity weights approach health status eq-va qaly gain benefit time preference icer threshold literature duration distributional concerns issue