http://repub.eur.nl/res/aut/6058/ List of Publications en http://repub.eur.nl/static-eur/img/logo.png http://repub.eur.nl http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/38659/ 2013-01-01T00:00:00Z Observationeel leren, dat wil zeggen, leren door te kijken naar het goede voorbeeld van anderen, is een natuurlijke manier van leren die jonge kinderen spontaan gebruiken. Alles zelf door eigen ervaring moeten leren zou niet alleen zeer tijdrovend maar vaak ook gevaarlijk zijn. Gelukkig kunnen we leren van het goede voorbeeld van anderen. Observationeel leren van voorbeelden noemen we dit. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/26004/ 2011-04-01T00:00:00Z This study examines the effects of two learning environments (i.e., problem-based learning [PBL] versus lecture-based [LB] environments) on undergraduates' study motivation. Survey results demonstrated that PBL students scored higher on competence but did not differ from LB students on autonomous motivation. Analyses of focus groups further indicated that active learning aspects, such as collaboration are perceived as motivating. However, controlling elements (i.e., mandatory presence) and uncertainty (i.e., in selecting the correct and sufficient literature) were described as detrimental for students' motivation. In conclusion, PBL does not always seem to lead to higher intrinsic motivation. It is therefore crucial to build in the right amount of structure in learning environments and balance controlling elements versus autonomy, even in learning environments that are intended to be motivating for students. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/16754/ 2009-09-01T00:00:00Z Background: Constructivist views of learning have brought conceptions of learning to attention again. Conceptions are considered important determinants of effective learning. Students can differ in their conceptions depending on their educational experience. Aims: The present study investigated students' conceptions of constructivist learning. Do students with greater experience in their academic programme differ in their conceptions of constructivist learning compared to students with less experience? In addition, to what extent are conceptions of constructivist learning different in a conventional, lecture-based curriculum compared to a constructivist, problem-based learning curriculum? Samples: Three groups (i.e. first-year, second-year, and third-year students) in two different curricula (i.e. conventional, lecture-based and constructivist, problem-based) were tested. Methods: A cross-sectional design was used. Students' conceptions of constructivist activities (i.e. knowledge construction, cooperative learning, self-regulation, use of authentic problems, self-perceived inability to learn, and motivation to learn) were measured by a questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Results: A significant difference in questionnaire's scores between year 1 and year 2 (but not between year 2 and 3) was found with respect to conceptions about knowledge construction, self-regulation, and the use of authentic problems, but not for cooperative learning and motivation to learn. For self-perceived inability, an interaction effect was found. Furthermore, results showed significant differences between both curriculum groups on all dependent measures. Conclusions: Differences in conceptions can be perceived between students who enter a new learning programme (i.e. higher education) and students who already have one year of experience in higher education. Among students with more than one year of educational experience, differences disappear. Furthermore, this study shows that the learning environment can make a difference with respect to students' conceptions of constructivist learning activities. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14250/ 2008-12-01T00:00:00Z This study investigated the role of self-directed learning (SDL) in problem-based learning (PBL) and examined how SDL relates to self-regulated learning (SRL). First, it is explained how SDL is implemented in PBL environments. Similarities between SDL and SRL are highlighted. However, both concepts differ on important aspects. SDL includes an additional premise of giving students a broader role in the selection and evaluation of learning materials. SDL can encompass SRL, but the opposite does not hold. Further, a review of empirical studies on SDL and SRL in PBL was conducted. Results suggested that SDL and SRL are developmental processes, that the "self" aspect is crucial, and that PBL can foster SDL. It is concluded that conceptual clarity of what SDL entails and guidance for both teachers and students can help PBL to bring forth self-directed learners. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14906/ 2008-09-01T00:00:00Z http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/17789/ 2008-09-01T00:00:00Z The present study investigated relationships between students' conceptions of constructivist learning on the one hand, and their regulation and processing strategies on the other hand. Students in a constructivist, problem-based learning curriculum were questioned about their conceptions of knowledge construction and self-regulated learning, as well as their beliefs regarding their own (in)ability to learn and motivation to learn. Two hypothesized models were tested within 98 psychology students, using a structural equation modelling approach: The first model implemented regulation and processing variables of the Inventory of Learning Styles [ILS, Vermunt (Learning styles and regulation of learning in higher education - towards process-oriented instruction in autonomous thinking, 1992)], the second model of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire [MSLQ, Pintrich and de Groot (Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40, 1990)]. Results showed that structural relations exist between conceptions of constructivist learning and regulation and processing strategies. Furthermore, students who express doubt with regard to their own learning capacities are at risk for adopting an inadequate regulation strategy. A three-tiered structure of conceptual, controlling, and operational level appeared valid for the MSLQ variables, but not entirely for those of the ILS. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/9264/ 2007-03-23T00:00:00Z Constructivism is currently an influential view on learning. It advocates a student-centred perspective: Students are active learners who construct their own understanding (e.g., Slavin, 2006). Different types of constructivism can be distinguished (e.g., Phillips, 1995) that all acknowledge that the construction of knowledge is an active process. This active process can be described in terms of individual cognitive processes (i.e., cognitive constructivism), in terms of social processes (i.e., social constructivism), or in terms of sociocultural processes (i.e., constructionism; Phillips, 1997). Despite these differences, constructivist perspectives share a number of assumptions that should be considered in learning (e.g., Driscoll, 2005). First, knowledge acquisition is a process of knowledge construction in which prior knowledge comprises the frame of reference for the interpretation of new information (Cunningham, 1992). This assumption goes against the idea of knowledge acquisition as pure knowledge accumulation (Blumenfeld, 1992). Second, learning involves interactions with others such as fellow-students or teachers. Cooperative learning is therefore another assumption shared by constructivist views. Constructivists are, however, not unanimous with respect to the role of cooperation in knowledge acquisition, but acknowledge, in variable degree, that social negotiation is an important part of it (Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996). Furthermore, knowledge construction benefits from metacognitive skills such as to plan, monitor, and evaluate one’s learning process. Learners who set their own learning goals, observe the progress they make in order to achieve these goals, make adjustments to their planning if! necessary, and reinforce themselves at appropriate times are labelled as effective self-regulated learners (e.g., Winne, 1995b). Self-regulated learning is considered a third key assumption in learning according to constructivist views (Slavin, 2006). Finally, constructivists stress the importance of learning that takes places in an authentic context, preferably similar to future professional contexts. To that end, ill-structured problems are often used, which serve as organizers for students’ learning (White & Frederiksen, 1998). These four assumptions of constructivist learning (i.e., knowledge construction, cooperative learning, self-regulated learning, and use of authentic tasks) constitute the building blocks for the studies reported in this thesis. The assumptions are studied from a student-perspective: How do students look at these assumptions? What are students’ conceptions of constructivist learning? Do they acknowledge knowledge construction, cooperative lear! ning, self-regulated learning, and the use of authentic tasks as impor tant factors for their learning processes? Two additional factors were examined in this thesis: Self-perceived inability to learn as a possible negative side-effect of open, constructive learning environments (e.g., Duke, Forbes, Hunter, & Prosser, 1998) and motivation to learn as a well-known influencing factor on students’ learning (e.g., Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Based on the findings presented in the studies of this thesis, several conclusions can be put forward. A first conclusion is that we were able to develop an adequate instrument to measure students’ conceptions of constructivist assumptions in a reliable and valid way. Conceptual agreement about the questionnaire’s items was established and its factor structure disclosed cross-validation. Furthermore, in line with previous research on conceptions of learning, conceptions of constructivist learning maintain (indirect) relationships with academic achievement. More specifically, what students believe concerning knowledge construction predicts the learning activities they undertake and their self-perceived inability to learn and motivation can make predictions with respect to students’ study time. What students believe with respect to aspects of learning and constructivism in particular, plays a role, though indirect, in students’ regulation and processing strategies and learning outcomes. These results suggest that in order to improve academic achievement, changing study activities is not sufficient since these activities are to some extent dependent on students’ conceptions. In addition, findings indicate relationships between a number of conceptions of constructivist learning and regulation and processing strategies. In sum, the relative importance of st! udents’ conceptions of constructivism for their learning became apparent in these studies. Traditionally, the teacher, instructional methods, learning materials, and study activities are considered as the elements of change in order to achieve the necessary knowledge reconstruction to promote performance (Sinatra & Pintrich, 2003). Our study suggests that the learner can and has to act as a controller. Hence, students’ conceptions should receive more attention in education and specific instruction and training programs could help students in this respect (Lonka, Joram, & Bryson, 1996). Finally, it was demonstrated that the curriculum in which students are enrolled has effects on students’ conceptions. Starting first- year students come to university with pronounced conceptions of constructivist learning issues. Problem-based learning students already recognize the importance of several constructivist learning principles more than students in a conventional curriculum. Therefore, studies on the comparison of conventional and problem- based learning curricula should take these initial differences into consideration, because students’ conceptions of learning can influence other aspects of learning. Most studies comparing constructivist with conventional programs solely highlight differences that evolve due to the curriculum, while this study was able to show that with respect to conceptions, to some extent ‘different’ students enter different programs. Hence, conceptions of constructivist learning activities can act as an important moderator of problem-! based learning effects and should be considered in examining the effects of problem-based learning and probably in all comparative education research. In line with these findings, we found evidence for the influence of the learning environment on students’ conceptions of constructivist learning. While earlier studies demonstrated the effect by manipulating the learning environment (i.e., by implementing certain learning tasks that were labelled as constructivist, e.g., Tynjälä, 1997), the study presented in Chapter 6 demonstrated this effect in an actual learning environment. Furthermore, differences in conceptions due to a new learning program (i.e., higher education) happen in the first year. After this year, conceptions seem to consolidate. Therefore, training programs developed to alter students’ conceptions should be administered in the first year of higher education, since this seems to be the “critical period”. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/2830/ 2004-10-01T00:00:00Z BACKGROUND: Previous studies on the development of medical expertise, predominantly using measures of free recall and pathophysiological explanations, have shown ambiguous results concerning the relationship between expertise level and encapsulated knowledge. PURPOSE: To investigate differences in clinical case representations by medical students and family doctors. In particular, the role of encapsulated knowledge in clinical case representations was investigated. METHODS: Year 2 (n = 15) and Year 4 (n = 15) medical students and family doctors (n = 15) were instructed to study carefully 2 case descriptions associated with a particular disease. After each case description participants were asked to provide a diagnosis. Subsequently, they judged whether or not a target item presented on a computer screen was related to the case description. Target items consisted of literally stated signs and symptoms, inferred encapsulated items and filler items. RESULTS: Family doctors provided more accurate diagnoses than Year 2 and Year 4 medical students. Furthermore, family doctors were faster and made fewer errors in judging the relatedness of all item types than Year 2 and 4 medical students. In particular, family doctors showed their best performance on the encapsulated items. CONCLUSIONS: The present study showed that encapsulated knowledge becomes increasingly more prominent as expertise develops. For experienced doctors, encapsulated concepts function as the most important building blocks of clinical case representations.