http://repub.eur.nl/res/aut/7741/ List of Publications en http://repub.eur.nl/static-eur/img/logo.png http://repub.eur.nl http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/14139/ 2009-01-01T00:00:00Z Animated models use animations and explanations to teach how a problem is solved and why particular problem-solving methods are chosen. Often spoken explanations are proposed to accompany animations in order to prevent overloading the visual channel (i.e., the modality effect). In this study we adopt the hypothesis that the inferior performance of written text compared to spoken text is due to the fact that written text receives less attention and, consequently, less effortful processing. In a 2 × 2 factorial experiment (N = 96) with the factors modality (written, spoken) and reflection (reflection prompts, no reflection prompts) the hypothesis is tested that prompted reflection requires learners to explicitly attend to written explanations and carefully process them, thus yielding higher transfer performance, whereas for spoken explanations prompted reflection would have no effect on transfer performance. The results indeed showed the hypothesized interaction between modality and reflection prompts. They suggest that the modality effect can be compensated for when learners explicitly attend to the information and effortfully process it. This has implications for learning situations in which spoken explanations are no option, such as education for the hearing-impaired. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/2842/ 2003-12-01T00:00:00Z Background: On the basis of a multimodal model of working memory, cognitive load theory predicts that a multimedia-based instructional format leads to a better acquisition of complex subject matter than a purely visual instructional format. http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/2850/ 2002-02-01T00:00:00Z Cognitive load theory (CLT) is aimed at developing training material that efficiently makes use of the available cognitive processing capacity and stimulates the learner's ability to use acquired knowledge and skills in new situations. It is claimed that CLT-based training formats meet the cognitive abilities of elderly learners particularly well. That is, cognitive aging brings about several declines of working memory, which impede the acquisition of complex cognitive skills. By making an optimal use of the ‘remaining’ cognitive resources, learning can be enhanced. For that purpose, CLT provides a promising range of training formats that have proven their effectiveness relative to conventional formats in young adults. This article presents an experimental study (N=54) aimed at the efficiency of worked examples as a substitute for conventional practice problems in training both elderly and young adults. According to CLT, studying worked examples is a more efficient means of training complex skills than solving conventional problems. As predicted, the results show that — with respect to the elderly — the efficiency of studying worked examples is higher than the efficiency of solving conventional problems in that less training time and cognitive load leads to a comparable level of performance.