Bridging the gap between intentions and behavior: Implementation intentions, action control, and procrastination

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Abstract

In the context of Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior, the antecedents of intentions are better understood than the antecedents of behavior. The current study aimed to improve the understanding of the transition from intentions to behavior. Based on the work of Gollwitzer (1993), Kuhl and Beckmann (1994), and Lay (1986) we proposed a model of mediators (i.e., implementation intentions) and moderators (i.e., action–state orientation and trait procrastination) in the intention–behavior relation. The model was applied to job seeking, and tested using longitudinal survey data of a sample of unemployed individuals in The Netherlands (N = 175). Support was found for the proposed mediating role of implementation intentions in the relation between job search intention and job search behavior. The proposed moderating roles of action–state orientation and trait procrastination were not supported.

Introduction

Unemployment has detrimental effects on the physical and psychological well-being of unemployed individuals and their families (Murphy & Athanasou, 1999). From both an individual and societal point of view, it is crucial that unemployed individuals move back to work. An important antecedent of reemployment is the intensity of the unemployed individual’s job search behavior (Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001). Job search behavior has been investigated from a variety of theoretical viewpoints. Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action (TRA) and its successor, Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) seem to be valid and useful models to predict job search behavior (Caska, 1998, Van Ryn and Vinokur, 1992; Vinokur & Caplan, 1987). Both theories state that actual (job search) behavior is predicted best by behavioral intentions (to engage in job seeking).

The TRA and TPB have been used extensively in the prediction of a wide range of behaviors (e.g., Armitage and Conner, 2001, Sheppard et al., 1988). In general, research shows that whereas these theories capture the variance in behavioral intentions very well, the explained variance in behavior is much lower (Armitage and Conner, 2001, Sutton, 1998). This difference in the prediction of intention versus behavior also applies to the context of job seeking (see Van Ryn and Vinokur, 1992, Vinokur and Caplan, 1987). The main focus of the current study therefore is to improve the prediction of job search behavior, by proposing a model of mediators and moderators in the job search intention–behavior relation.

Section snippets

Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior

According to the TRA, the best predictor of human behavior is the intention to do so (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Intentions, which reflect the effort that people plan to exert in order to perform the behavior, are a function of two determinants (Fishbein, 1980). The first determinant is the person’s attitude toward the behavior, that is, the positive or negative evaluation of performing the behavior. The second determinant is the subjective norm, which reflects the person’s perception of social

Implementation intentions

According to Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA, intentions are the sole determinant of human behavior. The TPB identified people’s perceived control over the behavior as a second determinant of human behavior in cases where complete volitional control is lacking (Ajzen, 1985). Despite this addition, the common weakness of the model remains, that is, ignoring the psychological processes that turn intentions into actions. In filling this void, Gollwitzer (1993) introduced the concept of

Action control theory

In trying to explain the gap between behavioral choice and action, Kuhl and Beckmann (1985) introduced a theory of action control. This theory assumes that besides motivational factors (e.g., goal intentions), there is a second category of non-motivational factors that may cause a failure to enact an intended action. Action control refers to self-regulatory mechanisms guiding the initiation and maintenance of an intention. People with low levels of action control can be characterized as state

Procrastination

A third variable that may play a role of importance in the gap between intention and behavior is procrastination. Lay (1986) defined procrastination as the tendency to postpone that which is necessary to reach some goal. As Van Eerde (2003) noted, procrastination must be distinguished from planned delay. Only unintended delay is considered procrastination. Thus, procrastination pertains to intentions that do not result in actions. Generally, procrastination is interpreted as a lower-order

A model for the relation between intention and behavior

In the preceding sections we discussed various theories that contribute to the prediction of job search behavior. In this section, we integrate these theoretical viewpoints, resulting in a combined model describing the relation between intentions and behavior (see Fig. 1).

According to the models of Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, Ajzen, 1985 the immediate determinant of behavior is the intention to perform the behavior. As was described above, however, Gollwitzer (1993) suggested that this relation

The role of perceived behavioral control

Although the model presented in Fig. 1 especially concerns the relation between intention and behavior, the role of perceived behavior control should not be disregarded in this context. As discussed before, two different components of PBC can be distinguished (Conner and Armitage, 1998, Terry and O’Leary, 1995), that is, self-efficacy and perceived control. Terry and O’Leary (1995) found support for this distinction, although the two components were correlated. Moreover, their study showed that

The present study

As job search behavior is an important predictor of reemployment among unemployed individuals (Kanfer et al., 2001), it is critical to improve our understanding of the antecedents of job search behavior. Therefore, the present study was designed to illustrate the model as depicted in Fig. 1 with empirical data from a sample of unemployed individuals. The variables specified in the model were measured in a longitudinal survey design. Contrary to much previous work on implementation intentions,

Sample and procedure

The data were collected in a two-wave longitudinal design in The Netherlands. Job search intention, self-efficacy, perceived control, implementation intentions, prospective action–state orientation, and trait procrastination were assessed at Time 1 of the study. Job search behavior was assessed four months later at Time 2. Data were collected in a sample of unemployed individuals in The Netherlands as a part of a larger study (Van Hooft, Born, Taris, Van der Flier, & Blonk, 2004). All

Results

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations between the study variables. The table shows that the goal intention to engage in job seeking was significantly correlated with reported job seeking behavior four months later (Proposition 1 supported). As expected, action–state orientation and trait procrastination were negatively correlated.

The proposed model as depicted in Fig. 1 (Model A) was tested using structural equation modeling with LISREL 8.30 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993

Discussion

In the context of Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior, the antecedents of intentions are better understood than the antecedents of behavior. The current study aimed to improve our understanding of the transition from intention to behavior by presenting a model of mediators and moderators in the intention–behavior relation (see Fig. 1). The model was applied to the area of unemployment. From both an individual and a societal point of view it is important to move unemployed individuals back

Conclusion

To improve employment counseling, it is of major importance to understand people’s job search behavior. Although previous research has resulted in adequate models to predict job search intentions, the prediction of job search behavior remains relatively unexplored. This study tried to fill this void by proposing an extended model for the prediction of job search behavior. The model suggests that people are more likely to actually search for jobs when they furnish their intentions with detailed

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